La marcia su Roma

The March on Rome in brief: how Mussolini’s Black Shirts gained power

There march on Rome it was one armed demonstrationoccurred between 27 and 30 October 1922through which the National Fascist Partyled by Benito Mussolinigained power. Fascism, despite being born only in 1919, became a mass movement in a few years thanks to the crisis in which Italy found itself after the First World War. Between 1921 and 1922 the fascist teams they carried out violence in many places, attacking opponents but earning the consent of some social classes. In October 1922 Mussolini and his followers ordered the black shirts to march on Rome to put pressure on the king, Vittorio Emanuele III, to entrust the government to them. The sovereign gave in and called Mussolini to form the new government. The Twenty Years had thus begun.

Italy at the end of the First World War and the two red years

To understand how the march on Rome was possible, we must consider that after the First World War, Italy, despite being one of the victorious countries, had to face a serious political, social and economic crisis. Millions of farmers and other men belonging to humbler classes had been called up to arms and, at the front, had become aware of their rights. Upon their return they expected their conditions to improve, but the Italian political-economic system proved incapable of providing adequate responses. The years 1919 and 1920 are known as red bienniumbecause they took place throughout the country heated protests: workers organized strikes and factory occupations; peasants occupied lands in many regions. Among the political groups, the People’s Partyof Catholic inspiration, and, above all, the Socialist Partywhich in the 1919 elections established itself as the largest Italian party, creating concerns and fears in the ruling class.

Factories occupied in 1920
Factories occupied in 1920

Other tensions were caused by international situation: the nationalist political currents, which emerged strengthened from the war, protested because they considered the territorial acquisitions obtained by Italy after the victory in the war to be insufficient.

The rise of fascism

The dei movement was also born in the two red years Combat bundlesfounded in Milan on March 23, 1919. The promoter was a former socialist, Benito Mussolini, who directed the newspaper “Il Popolo d’Italia”. The Fasci movement brought together within it some members of the interventionist front (i.e. those who, in previous years, had been in favor of Italy’s intervention in the war) and intended to support the claims of former combatants. The first program of the Fasci was very progressive, but the movement, which presented itself in the 1919 elections, was not successful and from 1920 moved progressively “to the right”embracing the demands of the landowners. This is how he was born squadrism: armed groups of fascists attacked political opponents and attacked the trade union leagues that were fighting for the allocation of land to farmers.

Action squad in Lucca in 1922
Action squad in Lucca in 1922

As time passed the movement strengthened and in 1921 it transformed into a party, the National Fascist Party (Pnf). In 1922 the action squads were able to occupy entire cities, often benefiting from the neutrality, if not the support, of the police, who saw the fascists as a barrier to the rise of socialism.

The coup d’état: march on Rome and occupations in the provinces

In 1922 Mussolini decided that the time had come to ask for the change of governmentled at that time by the liberal Luigi Facta. He therefore organized a coup d’état, which involved a armed demonstration in Rome and theoccupation of strategic buildings – prefectures, railway stations, communications centers – in other cities. The uprisings took place between 26 and 27 October 1922 in numerous provinces, especially in the Centre-North.

To guide the march towards the capital, a “quadrumvirate” composed of:

  • Italo Balboone of the most prominent squad leaders;
  • Michele Bianchisecretary of the Fascist Party;
  • Emilio De Bonoarmy general;
  • Cesare Maria de Vecchifascist exponent close to the monarchy.

The quadrumvirate settled in Perugia; Mussolini instead stayed in Milan (perhaps to be close to the Swiss border so he could escape if things went wrong).

Fascists in Perugia
Fascists in Perugia.

The plan was for the Blackshirts to concentrate in some locations near Rome before entering the capital. The rally began on October 28 and continued the next day. They reunited around 15,000 black shirts. The government invited the prefects to repress the insurrection and proclaimed it state of siege (i.e. invited the military authority to react with force). The fascists could not have resisted if the army had tried to stop them, but the king, Victor Emmanuel III, he refused to sign the decree which established the state of siege, effectively giving the black shirts the green light. The reasons why the sovereign refused the signature have been discussed at length. Maybe he had received pressure from military leaders or by nationalist exponents; probably, he feared that facing the fascists militarily would mean starting a war civil war.

Mussolini’s arrival in Rome

When the coup d’état began, the fascists didn’t know whether to demand that Mussolini become prime minister or settle for a change in the executive. Given the outcome of the march, Mussolini was able to ask to be appointed head of government. The king accepted and summoned him to Rome by telegram. The fascist squads, strengthened by the numerous black shirts arriving at the last moment, were able to enter Rome and parade before the king. The exact number of participants in the parade is not known, but it was probably around 30-40,000 people. In the capital the fascists were responsible for violence against opponents and citizens.

Mussolini in Rome with the Quadrumiviri
Mussolini in Rome with the Quadrumiviri

After the march on Rome, Mussolini formed a coalition governmentwhich, together with the fascists, included liberal, popular and nationalist exponents. Within a few years, non-fascist ministers were ousted and the actual dictatorship began.

Sources:

Giulia Albanese, The march on Rome, Laterza 2006.

Renzo De Felice, Mussolini the fascist. I. The conquest of power, 1921-1925, Einaudi 1966.

Gianpasquale Santomassimo, The March on Rome, Giunti, 2000.